Ecosystem
Alteration
Below
is a timeline of major events and legislative actions that have
contributed to the large-scale alterations of the ecosystems
of the Upper Mississippi River System and the broader watershed:
Upper
Mississippi River surveys and exploration, 1817 - 1823
Army Engineer, Major Stephen H. Long, surveyed and explored
the Upper Mississippi River, looking for ways to improve the
region for settlement and commerce. Among other things, his
report recommended that canals be constructed around the rapids.
As a result, Congress assigned responsibility for managing the
Mississippi River and improving it for steamboats to the Army
Corps of Engineers.
Federal
authority over interstate commerce, 1824
The United States Supreme Court ruled in Gibbons v. Ogden that
the power of the federal government to regulate interstate commerce
includes the power to regulate river navigation "so far
as that navigation may be in any manner connected with commerce."
The decision gave to Congress the legal authority to fund river
improvements.
General
Survey Act of 1824
Congress passed the General Survey Act authorizing the president
to employ civil engineers and officers of the Army Corps of
Engineers to make surveys, plans, and estimates for "routes
of such roads and canals as he may deem of national importance
in a commercial or military point of view, or necessary for
the transportation of public mail."
Roads
and Canals Act of 1824
Within one month of passage of the General Survey Act, Congress
approved the Roads and Canals Act, appropriating $75,000 to
the Army Corps of Engineers to improve navigation on the Ohio
and Mississippi Rivers by removing sandbars, snags, and other
obstacles.
Rivers
and Harbors Act of 1826
Congress passed the Rivers and Harbors Act, authorizing the
president to have river surveys undertaken to clean out and
deepen selected waterways and to make various other river and
harbor improvements. In consolidating both planning and construction,
the Act became the first true river and harbor law.
Mississippi
River flood, 1828
Generally believed to be the greatest flood of the nineteenth
century, the Mississippi River flood of 1828 caused widespread
damage to the region.
Army
Corps surveys, 1837
The Army Corps of Engineers conducted surveys of the 15-mile
Rock Island rapids at Rock Island, Illinois and the nine-mile
Des Moines rapids at Keokuk, Iowa.
Des Moines
rapids canal, 1839
Authorized to cut a channel through the Des Moines rapids in
1838, the Army Corps of Engineers blasted a channel five-feet
deep and 200-feet wide through the rapids, completing the canal
in 1839.
Swamp
Land Acts of 1849, 1850 and 1860
The Swamp Land Acts of 1849, 1850, and 1860 transferred nearly
65 million acres of wetlands in 15 states from the federal government
to state governments in order to expedite drainage. Within the
Upper Mississippi River System, these Acts resulted in Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa collectively having more than 80
percent of their wetlands drained, and Indiana, Illinois, Iowa,
Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin collectively losing
35 million acres of wetlands.
Rock
Islands Rapids canal, 1854 - 1907
Authorized in 1854 to cut a channel through the Rock Island
Rapids and to clear snags and other hazards from the Upper Mississippi
River, the Army Corps of Engineers completed the clearing in
1867. Even though larger rocks are removed from the channel,
the Rock Island Rapids still remained a major obstacle until
the Moline Lock, completed in 1907, enabled boats to bypass
the worst of it.
Publication
of Mississippi River Report, 1861
Humphreys and Abbot's "Report upon the Physics and Hydraulics
of the Mississippi River," completed after more than ten
years of exhaustive research, represented the most thorough
analyses of the Mississippi River to date. The report won the
respect of engineers around the world, both in terms of data
gathered and the conclusions rendered, and it influenced the
development of flood control policy well into the twentieth
century.
Creation
of House Standing Committee on Mississippi Levees, 1875
Led by Louisiana Congressman Randall Lee Gibson, flood control
advocates convinced House Speaker Michael C. Kerr of Indiana
to authorize the creation of a House Standing Committee on Mississippi
Levees. Beginning with its inception in December 1875, the Committee
became the voice for flood control interests in Congress and
remained so for more than 35 years.
Navigational
channel development, 1878
To compete with newly created railroad networks, Congress authorized
the creation and maintenance of a navigational channel 4.5-foot
deep on the Upper Mississippi River between St. Paul, Minnesota,
and the mouth of the Ohio River. Obtained through construction
of wing dams, closing dams, shore protection and dredging, and
funded yearly by Congress, the channel project was finally completed
in 1907.
Mississippi
River Commission Act of 1879
Representing the first federal attempt to develop a coordinated
plan for the development of the Mississippi River, Congress
established the Mississippi River Commission; a seven-member
advisory board made up of three Army Corps of Engineers representatives,
one Coast and Geodetic Survey representative, and three civilians
(at least two of whom had to be engineers). Congress tasked
the Commission with developing and overseeing the implementation
of plans to "improve and give safety and ease to navigation"
and to "prevent destructive floods" on the Mississippi
River. The Army Corps of Engineers was charged with conducting
the work, and also with supplying necessary plants and equipment.
Flood
Control, 1880s
The Army Corps of Engineers began construction of flood control
structures throughout the Upper Mississippi River System. By
constraining and redirecting the river channel and cutting it
off from its floodplain, the flood control measures greatly
altered the hydrology of the entire Mississippi River system
as well as the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems it supports.
Fish
stocking, 1880s
Fish stocking on the Upper Mississippi River began with introductions
of American shad, Atlantic salmon, and carp.
River
and Harbor Act of 1880
Congress authorized a dam at Lake Winnibigoshish, Wisconsin,
on the headwaters of the Mississippi River for navigation purposes.
The dam was the first reservoir to be built by the Army Corps
of Engineers.
Congressional
Appropriation Bill, 1881
The Congressional Appropriation Bill of 1881 included a provider
restricting the Mississippi River Commission's authority to
construct levees for the purpose of flood control.
Congressional
Appropriation Bill, 1882
The Congressional Appropriation Bill of 1882 authorized the
Army Corps of Engineers to undertake levee construction for
the purpose of improving navigation, but not for flood control.
Rivers
and Harbors Appropriations Act, 1882
The 1882 River and Harbors Appropriations Act signaled Congress'
intent to improve waterways to benefit the nation by promoting
competition amongst transportation modes. It was the first act
of Congress to combine appropriations for development of the
nation's waterways with a reaffirmation of the policy of freedom
from tolls and other user charges.
Dam construction,
1884
The Army Corps of Engineers began construction of six dams on
the Upper Mississippi River in Minnesota in order to stabilize
water levels downstream. Construction was complete by 1912.
Mississippi
River flood, 1890
The Mississippi River flood of 1890 proved that levees on the
river system were inadequate and focused congressional attention
on river problems. The flood provided evidence that the Mississippi
River Commission's efforts, together with those of state and
local levee organizations, to contain the river's main channel
and close off its natural outlets contributed to higher flood
levels.
River
and Harbor Act of 1890
In reaction to the severe Mississippi River flood of 1890, the
River and Harbor Act of 1890 appropriated $3.5 million to the
Mississippi River Commission. For the first time bill language
did not include the standard provider against levee construction
for the purpose of controlling floods. The landmark piece of
legislation contributed to the rapid expansion of levee construction
under the Mississippi River Commission.
Pearl
button industry, 1891
Pearl buttons produced from harvested Mississippi River mussel
shells became one of the region's biggest booming industries.
Mississippi
River Commission, 1896
The Mississippi River Commission admitted that its attempts
to improve navigability of the Mississippi River through bank
revetment and contraction works had generally failed. By temporarily
abandoning these expensive river improvement efforts, the Commission
was able to concentrate ever greater percentages of its resources
on the construction of levees.
Construction
of dredges, 1896
Congress authorized the construction of dredges with the view
of ultimately obtaining and maintaining a navigable channel
from Cairo, Illinois, not less than 250-feet in width and 9-feet
in depth at all periods of the year except when navigation was
closed by ice. In response, the Mississippi River Commission
created an independent dredging district at St. Louis, Missouri.
Mississippi
River flood, 1897
The devastation caused by the Mississippi River flood of 1897
forced Congress to reassess the value and direction of its flood
control program for the Lower Mississippi River.
Nelson
Report, 1898
A congressionally-sponsored investigation into alternative flood
control methods yielded no change in Mississippi River flood
control policy. Instead, the Nelson report advocated for the
continuation of a levees-only policy for the Lower Mississippi
River.
Mississippi
River flood, 1898
For the first time since the commencement of a continuous levee
line along the Lower Mississippi River, the Mississippi River
flood of 1898, reaching a height of fifty feet at Cairo, Illinois,
was safely discharged to the Gulf of Mexico without a single
break in the levees.
Pearl
button industry crash, 1898
The pearl button industry suffered a temporary crash because
of depletion of the Mississippi River's mussel population.
River
and Harbor Act of 1894
The River and Harbor Act of 1894 authorized the Secretary of
the Army to prescribe rules and regulations for the use, administration,
and navigation of any or all canals and similar works of navigation
owned, operated, or maintained by the United States.
River
and Harbor Act of 1899
The River and Harbor Act of 1899 authorized approval for the
construction of bridges, dams, and dikes across any navigable
water of the United States. The Act also required that structures
built under state authority in a single state needed approval
of the Chief of Engineers and the Secretary of the Army. In
addition, the Act prohibited the placing of obstructions to
navigation outside established federal lines and excavating
from, or depositing material in, such waters, unless a permit
for the works had been authorized by the Secretary of the Army.
Chicago
Ship and Sanitary Canal, 1900
The Chicago Ship and Sanitary Canal opened in 1900. The 28 mile
canal, built from the south branch of the Chicago River through
the low summit and down to Lockport, Illinois, was used to carry
wastes away from Lake Michigan and to the Mississippi River
through the Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers. The canal's flow
was controlled by locks at the mouth of the Chicago River and
at Lockport.
Reclamation
Act of 1902
The Reclamation Act of 1902 established irrigation in the West
as a federal policy. The Act authorized the Secretary of the
Interior to locate, construct, operate, and maintain works for
the storage, diversion, and development of waters for the reclamation
of arid and semi-arid lands in the Western states.
National
interest in waterway development, 1902
Railroad baron James J. Hill declared that shipping on the Upper
Mississippi River had declined so much that the river was no
longer worth improving. Scared cities and business interests
along the river triggered national interest in waterway development.
Mississippi
River flood, 1903
The Mississippi River flood of 1903 once again breached the
levees. According to the Mississippi River Commission, all crevasses
in the line resulted from the "unfinished nature of the
levees as regards both grade and section." The push for
higher levees continued.
River
and Harbor Act of 1906
The River and Harbor Act of 1906 expanded the jurisdiction of
the Mississippi River Commission by authorizing the construction
of levees between the Head of Passes and Cape Girardeau, Missouri,
and extended the Commission's responsibilities for levees above
Cairo, Illinois, to the head of the St. Francis Basin.
Railroad
car shortage, 1906
A railroad car shortage in 1906 left grain rotting at midwestern
terminals. Navigation interests pushed for a six-foot channel
project for the Upper Mississippi River.
River
and Harbor Act of 1907
Despite navigation improvements made to the Upper Mississippi
River System under the 4 1/2-foot channel project, railroads,
which had expanded throughout the Midwest following the Civil
War, still offered greater reliability, and steamboat traffic
declined. Responding to regional and national campaigns for
navigation improvements, Congress, through the River and Harbor
Act of 1907 authorized the Upper Mississippi River navigable
channel be deepened to six feet. To fulfill the task, the Corps
built more wing dams and closing dams, further controlling the
upper section of the river.
Mississippi
floods of 1912 and 1913
In 1912 and 1913, the Mississippi Valley experienced successive
record-breaking floods which precipitate a crisis in the Army
Corps reclamation program. The tremendous expense incurred as
a result of the regular inundation of the Valley, combined with
the cost of building, maintaining, and repairing the levee system,
became counter-prohibitive. Out of self-preservation, landowners
in the valley launched a massive propaganda campaign directed
at obtaining greater federal commitment.
Townsend
Report, 1913
Following the Mississippi River flood of 1913, President Woodrow
Wilson directed the Mississippi River Commission to submit a
report on flood control. The report, authored by Mississippi
River Commission President, Colonel Curtis Townsend, considered
six methods of flood control: reforestation, reservoirs, cut-offs,
outlets, floodways, and levees. As with all previous reports,
the Commission condemned the various alternatives to levees
and advocated for a continuation of policy.
Pearl
button industry peak 1909 - 1916
The pearl button industry peaked in 1909, with 2,600 working
boats. In 1913, mussel tonnage from the Illinois River alone
reached 5,890 tons, and was valued at almost $89,000 ($15/Ton).
At the peak of button-making activity in 1916, midwestern button
manufacturers sold $12.5 million worth of shell buttons.
River
and Harbor Act of 1913
The River and Harbor Act of 1913 expanded the Mississippi River
Commission's jurisdiction up to Rock Island, Illinois, with
certain restrictions.
Keokuk
Lock and Dam completion, 1913
The Army Corps of Engineers completed work on the Keokuk Lock
and Dam, as well as a Powerhouse, as part of an effort to generate
hydro electricity. At the time, it was the largest electric
generating plant in the world. The dam blocked the migration
of skipjack, which were essential to the development of native
mussels.
Ransdell-Humphreys
Act of 1917
The Ransdell-Humphreys Act of 1917, the first federal flood
control act, committed the federal government, for the first
time, to flood control for the Mississippi Valley. The Act also
extended the Mississippi River Commission's jurisdiction to
include water-courses connected with the Mississippi River to
the extent necessary to exclude flood waters from the upper
limits of any delta basins.
Declining
navigation, 1918
Despite the Army Corps channel improvement efforts, navigation
on the Upper Mississippi River continued to decline. By 1918,
virtually no through traffic moved between St. Paul, Minnesota,
and St. Louis, Missouri. Fearing the Midwest would become an
economic backwater without a diverse transportation system,
the regions business and navigation interests initiated another
movement to revive navigation.
Movement
to revive navigation, 1925 - 1930
Between 1925 and 1930, the region's business and navigation
interests fought to restore commerce to the Upper Mississippi.
Supporters, including large and small businesses, major cities,
principal farm organizations, and major political parties, persuaded
Congress to authorize a new project for the river system, one
that would truly compete with railroads.
Flood
Control Act of 1923
The Flood Control Act of 1923 authorized $60 million for levee
construction over a ten-year period for the purpose of completing
the levee system along the Lower Mississippi River.
Inland
Waterways Corporation, 1924
Congress created the Inland Waterways Corporation to promote,
encourage, and develop water transportation, service, as well
as facilities in connection with the commerce of the United
States, and to foster and preserve in full vigor both rail and
water transportation. To fulfill the water transportation provision,
the Corporation operated barges under the name Federal Barge
Lines on the Mississippi-Missouri and Warrior Rivers.
Levee
system complete, 1926
The Mississippi River Commission concluded in its annual report
that the levee system "is now in a condition to prevent
the destructive effects of floods."
River
and Harbor Act of 1927
The River and Harbor Act of 1927 authorized the Army Corps of
Engineers to undertake comprehensive surveys and formulate general
plans for the most effective improvement of navigable streams
and their tributaries, and the prosecution of these improvements
in combination with the development of potential water power,
the control of floods, and the need for irrigation. The surveys,
called "308 reports," established the first comprehensive
river-basin development plans for the nation and provided authority
to the Army Corps of Engineers for surveying and planning navigation
system for inland waters.
Great
Mississippi Flood of 1927
The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 devastated the Mississippi
River region. Herbert Hoover, then Secretary of Commerce, called
the flood "the greatest peace-time calamity in the history
of the country." The Mississippi River Commission's prized
levee system - the culmination of almost fifty years of work
-proved unequal to the task. The high water caused 17 breaks
in the main levee line and 209 crevasses on the tributaries
of the Mississippi. The flood waters overflowed an estimated
11,000,000 acres from Cairo, Illinois, to Natchez, Mississippi,
on the west bank and from the mouth of the Arkansas River to
Vicksburg, Mississippi, on the east bank. In terms of gauge
readings, volume of discharge, and destruction, the flood of
1927 was unprecedented. 246 people died as a result of the flood;
700,000 people were forced from their homes; 1,500,000 farm
animals were destroyed; and the Lower Mississippi Valley, including
parts of seven states, remained flooded for five months. Total
property loss and damage was estimated at between $200 and $400
million, exceeding the aggregate losses of all previous Mississippi
floods.
Flood
Control Act of 1928
Responding to the 1927 flood disaster, Congress overhauled the
flood control plan for the Lower Mississippi River. After much
debate, the Flood Control Act of 1928 was approved, authorizing
the Mississippi River Commission to implement Chief of Engineers,
Major General Edgar Jadwin's plan for controlling floods on
the Lower Mississippi River, including the abandonment of a
levees-only policy and the adoption of a comprehensive flood
control plan using floodways and spillways, as well as levees.
The plan provided for enlarging and strengthening the levees
from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to the Gulf of Mexico, with the
objective of safely discharging up to 1,500,000 cubic feet/second
of water within the main channel.
River
and Harbor Act of 1930
The River and Harbor Act of 1930 authorized construction of
a nine-foot channel with a minimum width of 400-feet to accommodate
long-haul, multiple-barge tows between Minneapolis and the mouth
of the Illinois River, and it provided for the construction
of locks and dams. Through the Act, Congress authorized a new
approach to navigation improvements on the Mississippi River.
Rather than narrowing the river and depending solely on the
flow of water from the basin, Congress approved 23 locks and
dams to be built to store water in reservoirs or pools. Only
in this way, the engineers insisted, could they guarantee a
nine-foot channel.
Mississippi
River Commission cut-off policy, 1932
Studies carried out by the newly created Waterways Experiment
Station convinced the Mississippi River Commission to initiate
a series of cutoffs in the middle reaches of the Mississippi
River. Within nine years, 16 such cutoffs shortened the distance
from Memphis, Tennessee, to Vicksburg, Mississippi, by 170 miles
and reduced flood heights along the main channel considerably.
The successful development of these cutoffs marked a new phase
in the evolution of flood-control engineering.
Congressional
Resolution, 1932
Congress passed a resolution requesting an examination and review
of the status and condition of works then in progress, as authorized
by the Flood Control Act of 1928, with a view to determining
if changes or modifications should be made in relation to the
project and its final execution.
Overton-Dear
Act of 1934
The Overton-Dear Act of 1934 resolved the bitter controversy
which had arisen from conflicting interpretations of the Flood
Control Act of 1928. In the Act, the government abandoned its
efforts to compel owners of property along the tributaries of
the Lower Mississippi River to donate levee rights-of-way at
no cost to the government.
Review
of flood works report, 1935
In accordance with the Congressional resolution of 1932, the
Army Corps of Engineers submitted a report to Congress reviewing
the status and condition of works then in progress as authorized
by the Flood Control Act of 1928. The report concluded that
the New Madrid Floodway levees at Cairo, Illinois, were nearly
complete; the Bonnet Carre Spillway at New Orleans, Louisiana,
was essentially complete; and neither of the larger floodways
(Morganza and Boeuf) was yet under construction.
Ohio-Mississippi
River flood, 1937
The Ohio-Mississippi River flood of 1937 forced operation of
the New Madrid floodway at Cairo, Illinois, and the Bonnet Carre
Spillway near New Orleans, Louisiana. The cutoffs initiated
in 1932 along the Mississippi below the mouth of the Arkansas
River accelerated discharges and lowered flood heights by as
much as five feet.
Flood
Control Act of 1938
The Flood Control Act of 1938, in addition to authorizing $375
million in flood control projects for a variety of river basins,
reduced requirements for local contribution in the construction
of reservoirs and facilitated the construction of headwater
projects on many of the major tributaries of the Mississippi
River, including the Upper Mississippi River.
Mississippi
River Commission resolution, 1938
The Mississippi River Commission passed a resolution directing
the various districts to begin the construction of gravel roads
on the levee crowns. Previously, the Commission had discouraged
any motorized travel on the levees because the weight of vehicles
might contribute to the sinking of the levees. However, responses
to the great flood of 1937 had been hampered by the difficulty
of transporting materials to critical areas.
Outbreak of World War II, 1940
The outbreak of World War II, promoted the recovery of the national
economy, and substantially increased Mississippi River commerce.
Unimpeded navigation also became essential for military operations;
almost 4,000 Army and Navy craft moved from inland shipyards
down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico.
Completion
of 9-foot channel, 1940
The Army Corps of Engineers completed the nine-foot channel
project (locks and dam 3-26). Twenty-six locks and dams now
crossed the river between Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Alton,
Illinois. The project resulted in a series of lake-like river
pools, greatly reducing the ability of rock channel-training
structures to direct flow and hold sediment.
Flood
Control Act of 1941
At the request of the Arkansas delegation, Congress removed
plans for construction of the Eudora Floodway from the Mississippi
River Commission's series of projects in favor of higher levees.
The Flood Control Act of 1941 also authorized the Yazoo Backwater
Project to protect the Delta area of Mississippi from the increased
stages. The project included a combination of levees, drainage
structures, and pumps.
Congressional
resolution, 1943
The House Flood Control Committee and the Senate Committee on
Commerce passed a resolution calling on the Army Corps' Chief
of Engineers and the Mississippi River Commission to submit
a report on the feasibility of amending the navigation provisions
of the Flood Control Act of 1928, with specific reference to
increasing channel depths from nine to 12-feet from Cairo, Illinois,
to Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Mississippi
River flood, 1943
During the flood of 1943, the Mississippi River reached its
second highest level in recorded history. Cape Girardeau, Illinois
recorded a level of 42.3 feet.
Mississippi
River Commission report, 1944
At the request of Congress, the Mississippi River Commission
released its report on the feasibility of increasing channel
depths below Cairo, Illinois. After thorough analysis, the Commission
concluded that stabilization efforts already underway, together
with additional dredging, might be enough to provide a 12-foot
deep channel below Cairo, Illinois.
Flood
Control Act of 1944
Based on the Mississippi River Commission report, the Flood
Control Act of 1944 authorized approximately 150 additional
projects throughout the nation at a cost of $750 million, including
approval for a 12-foot channel in the Mississippi River between
Cairo, Illinois, and Baton Rouge, Louisiana, as well as a $200
million stabilization program. The Act also required all subsequent
navigation and flood control projects be subject to the approval
of the affected states. In addition, the Act articulated a new
policy for the development of recreation facilities at reservoirs,
stipulating that public reservoirs be open for public use without
charge for boating, swimming, bathing, fishing, and other recreational
purposes. This new responsibility represented an important step
toward multi-purpose development of the nation's water resources.
Rivers
and Harbor Act of 1945
The Rivers and Harbor Act of 1945 authorized construction of
Lock 27 and the Chain of Rocks Canal, Missouri.
Atchafalaya
Basin study, 1950
A major Army Corps of Engineer study determined that, without
interference of some kind, Louisiana's Atchafalaya Basin would
capture the Mississippi River by 1975. To prevent this, the
Army Corps urged Congress to authorize the construction of a
controlled connection along the Old River, and to regulate the
volume of water allowed into the Atchafalaya Basin.
Mississippi
River Commission report, 1954
The Mississippi River Commission reported that its flood control
efforts had progressed to the point that most of the inhabitants
of the Mississippi Valley were now safe from a 1927-caliber
flood. Seventy-five percent of the bank revetment had been completed,
and only 250 miles of main-line levees remained unfinished.
Rivers
and Harbors Act of 1958
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1958 authorized Dam 27, a low-water,
rock-filled dam, and other bank improvements to support navigation
below old Lock and Dam 26.
Flood
Control Act of 1960
To discourage further encroachment on the flood plains, Congress
in the Flood Control Act of 1960 authorized the Corps of Engineers
to compile and disseminate information on floods and flood damage,
to identify areas subject to overflow, and to present general
criteria for guidance in the use of flood plain areas.
River
and Harbor Act of 1960
The River and Harbor Act of 1960 provided authority for the
Army Corps of Engineers to develop and construct small navigation
projects.
Rivers
and Harbor Act of 1962
The Rivers and Harbor Act of 1962 authorized construction of
the Kaskaskia River Navigation Project, including the Kaskaskia
Lock and Dam and channelization from the mouth of the river
to Fayetteville, Illlinois.
Completion
of Old River control structures, 1963
The Army Corps completed construction and began operation of
a controlled connection along the Old River, as authorized by
Congress in the Flood Control Act of 1954.
River
and Harbor and Flood Control Act of 1965
The River and Harbor and Flood Control Act of 1965 authorized
150 Army Corps projects or project modifications at an estimated
cost of $2 billion, including a long-range master plan for stabilizing
the Mississippi River between Cairo, Illinois, and Baton Rouge,
Louisiana, to facilitate the establishment of a 12-foot channel
depth.
Locks
and dam completion, 1965
The Army Corps of Engineers completed work on a system of 29
locks and dams along a 650-mile portion of the Mississippi River,
north of St. Louis, Missouri, creating the present-day slack
water navigation system for the Upper Mississippi River. The
purpose of the Army Corps' operated locks and dam system was
to enable river traffic to navigate the changes in elevation
along the river and to maintain the nine-foot channel depth,
as well as to control floods. Though previous projects had deepened
channels and directed flow to the center of channels, the locks
and dams turned the Upper Mississippi River into a series of
slack water pools at low and normal flows. Completion of the
locks and dams marked a turning point in the Upper Mississippi
River's hydrology and ecology.
Replacement
of the locks at Dam 26, 1968
Due to increasing congestion at Lock and Dam 26, the District
Engineer of the Army Corps' St. Louis District recommended replacement
of the locks at Dam 26 and construction of a new dam and 1,200-foot
locks at Alton, Illinois. The project, approved by the Army
Corps of Engineers, received several appropriations through
1975.
Hypoxia
in the Gulf of Mexico, 1970s
Dramatic changes to Mississippi River nutrient concentrations
and loadings to the adjacent continental shelf over the course
of the 20th century resulted in the occurrence of zones of severe
oxygen depletion, known as Hypoxia, in the Gulf of Mexico. Studies
revealed that nitrogen was the principal nutrient responsible
for the zones. The majority of Mississippi River nitrogen originated
from agricultural practices, while smaller fractions arose from
human sewage, nonagricultural fertilizer use, and precipitation.
Flood
Control Act of 1970
The Flood Control Act of 1970 authorized the Army Corps of Engineers
to review the operation of its projects in the Upper Mississippi
River-Illinois Waterway System in the interest of navigation,
flood control, water supply, and related purposes; and to report
to Congress with recommendations on the advisability of modifying
the structures or their operations and for improving the quality
of the environment in the overall public interest.
Mississippi
River flood, 1973
The Mississippi River flood of 1973 caused widespread damage,
resulting in 23 deaths, and a record 62 days-out-of-bank. Total
cost of the flood was estimated at $183 million.
Inland
Waterways Authorization Act, 1978
The Inland Waterways Authorization Act of 1978 authorized replacement
of Lock and Dam 26 with a new dam and a single lock, established
an inland waterway user tax, created the Inland Waterways Trust
Fund, and directed the Upper Mississippi River Basin Commission
to prepare a comprehensive master plan for the management of
the Upper Mississippi River.
Comprehensive
Master Plan for the Upper Mississippi River System, 1982
The Upper Mississippi River Basin Commission presented its findings
to the Congressional study authorized in 1978 related to further
navigation capacity expansion and its ecological impacts in
a landmark document, the Comprehensive Master Plan for the Management
of the Upper Mississippi River System. Among other things, the
Master Plan recommended that Congress authorize a second lock,
600-feet in length, at Lock and Dam 26 and exclude the second
lock from further action under the National Environmental Policy
Act of 1969; a habitat rehabilitation and enhancement program;
a long-term resource monitoring program; a computerized inventory
and analysis system; recreation projects; and a study of the
economic impacts of recreation.
Supplemental
Appropriation Act of 1985
The Supplemental Appropriation Act of 1985 authorized construction
of a 600-by-110-foot auxiliary lock and Lock and Dam 26.
Army
Corps of Engineers' General Plan, 1986
The Comprehensive Master Plan prepared by the Upper Mississippi
River Basin Commission was relatively conceptual in nature.
To guide implementation, the Army Corps of Engineers published
a foundational document entitled the General Plan. Release of
the document was followed by six Annual Addendums, each of which
provided programmatic and policy updates, individual project
status reports, and recommendations for out-year funding and
schedules.
Water
Resources Development Act of 1986
The Water Resources Development Act of 1986 defined the Upper
Mississippi River as a "nationally significant ecosystem
and a nationally significant commercial navigation system."
The Act authorized key elements of the Upper Mississippi River
Basin Commission's Comprehensive Master Plan, including both
a second lock at Lock and Dam 26, as well as a variety of environmental
initiatives on the Upper Mississippi River.
Upper
Mississippi River - Illinois Waterway Navigation Study, 1988
The Army Corps of Engineers released its initial appraisal regarding
navigation traffic capacity increases on the Upper Mississippi
River-Illinois Waterway. The appraisal recommended developing
a plan of study to investigate a long-term solution in order
to meet increased navigation demands and to reduce delays for
commercial traffic on the system.
Plan
of Study for Upper Mississippi River - Illinois Waterway navigation,
1989
The Army Corps of Engineers completed its Plan of Study for
the Upper Mississippi River - Illinois Waterway navigation feasibility
investigation. The document recommended undertaking two separate
navigation reconnaissance studies for investigating potential
navigation improvements, one for the Illinois Waterway, the
other for the Upper Mississippi River. Specific investigations
included defining the base condition, analyzing congestion problems,
determining system benefits, and examining environmental impacts.
The objective of the reconnaissance-level investigation was
to begin the process of establishing prioritized, waterway-specific
capital investment recommendations, including efficiency measures
that were required to meet future traffic demand.
Completion
of Lock and Dam 26, 1990
The Army Corps of Engineers completed work on replacement of
Lock and Dam 26 with a single 110-foot by 1,200-foot lock chamber.
The project, authorized in 1978, was named the Melvin Price
Locks and Dam.
Navigation
reconnaissance studies, 1991
The Army Corps of Engineers completed the Upper Mississippi
River and Illinois Waterway navigation reconnaissance studies
for investigating potential navigation improvements. The studies
concluded that there was economic feasibility for major capital
improvements between 2000 and 2050, and recommended performing
more detailed systemic feasibility level environmental, engineering,
and economic studies.
Upper
Mississippi River-Illinois Waterway Reconnaissance study, 1991
The Army Corps of Engineers combined the Illinois Waterway and
Upper Mississippi River navigation reconnaissance studies into
one feasibility study offering a systems approach for solving
navigation problems common to both rivers. The systems approach
included environmental studies for the reconstruction and expansion
of Locks and Dam 26 (near St. Louis) needed to address navigation
traffic impacts, at a cost of over $1 billion.
Zebra
mussels, 1991
Zebra mussels invaded the Upper Mississippi River via the Illinois
River tributary and were first recorded in 1991. Their populations
expanded rapidly, and by mid-1993 the mussels were found throughout
most of the Upper and Lower Mississippi River, with average
densities of zebra mussels in the Lower Illinois River more
than 50,000 per square meter.
Initial
Project Management Plan, 1992 - 1993
The Army Corps of Engineers completed its Initial Project Management
Plan for the feasibility phase of the navigation study. The
Plan outlined a multi-disciplined approach to detailed investigations,
and was initiated the following year.
Great
Flood of 1993
The Great Flood of 1993 resulted in catastrophic damages throughout
much of the Upper Mississippi River System. 47 deaths were attributed
to the flood, damages exceeded $15 billion, 74,000 people were
evacuated, and 72,000 homes were damaged.
Completion
of second lock at Lock and Dam 26, 1994
As authorized by the Supplemental Appropriation Act of 1985
and the Water Resources Development Act of 1986, the Army Corps
of Engineers completed construction of a second 110-foot by
600-foot lock at the Melvin Price Locks and Dam.
Army
Corps of Engineers feasibility study, 1998
Though initially envisioned as a six-year effort, the Army Corps
of Engineers' concluded that the environmental, economic, and
engineering studies component of its feasibility study would
take longer than originally anticipated. The Army Corps divided
research and planning efforts for the study into economics,
engineering, environmental/historic properties, project management/plan
formulation, and public involvement. Public meetings were held,
federal and state agencies were consulted, and a Governors'
Liaison Committee was formed.
Water
Resources Development Act of 1999
The Water Resources Development Act of 1999 authorized the Upper
Mississippi River Comprehensive Plan. The Act required that
the Army Corp of Engineers develop a plan to address water resource
and related land resource problems and opportunities in the
Upper Mississippi River-Illinois waterway in the interest of
the systemic flood damage reduction by means of structural and
non-structural flood control and floodplain management strategies;
continued maintenance of the navigation project; management
of bank caving and erosion; watershed nutrient and sediment
management; habitat management; and recreation needs. The Act
also required that the plan include recommendations on management
plans and actions to be carried out by the responsible federal
and non-federal entities; specifically, it authorized construction
of a systemic flood control project and recommendations for
follow-on studies for problem areas for which data or current
technology did not allow immediate solution. The Act required
the Army Corps of Engineers to report to Congress within three
years.
Draft Feasibility study, 2000
The Army Corps of Engineers issued its draft feasibility study
for the Upper Mississippi River - Illinois Waterway navigation
system and scheduled release of its final report sometime after
June of 2001. However, the study was temporarily halted in February
of 2001 in response to concerns over assumptions and methods
used in the economics portion of the study and the extent to
which the environmental impacts of navigation system operation
and maintenance had been addressed. The U.S. Department of Defense
asked the National Academy of Sciences (NAS)-via the Water Science
and Technology and Transportation Boards of the National Research
Council-to assess the integrity of the study and to complete
a policy review of data and methodologies. In addition to criticizing
the economic models and traffic forecasts underlying the Navigation
Study's assessment of the need for lock and dam upgrade and
expansion, the initial NAS report recommended that any future
version of the study give equal weight to the ecosystem restoration
measures needed to ensure the environmental sustainability of
the river system.
Draft
Project Management Plan for the Upper Mississippi River Comprehensive
Plan, 2002
The Army Corps of Engineers released its Draft Project Management
Plan for the Upper Mississippi River Comprehensive Plan, presenting
a plan of study that mets the requirements of Section 459 of
the Water Resources Development Act of 1999. Prepared for submission
to Congress for approval as a framework for implementation of
a systemic flood damage reduction and associated water resources
project, the Comprehensive Plan was required to include component
projects that made up the systemic plan and be based upon a
study completion date of July 2004, with submission of the recommended
plan and Report to Congress in December 2004.
