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Protecting
and Restoring the Columbia River
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Columbia
River from space: Source NASA
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About
the Ecosystem
Draining
a 259,000 square mile area, the Columbia River is the fourth largest
river in North America. Flowing circuitously, the system includes
territory in seven states -- Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana,
Nevada, Wyoming, and Utah -- and the Canadian Province of British
Columbia. Including the tributaries, the river's basin encompasses
3,000 square miles of waterways and lakes, with the largest tributary,
the Snake River, stretching for more than 1,100 miles.
The
ecology of the Columbia River basin is diverse, ranging from temperate
rain forest to semi-arid plateaus. The basin is home to populations
of elk, deer, bear, sheep and mountain lions; birds like the ring-necked
pheasant, grouse, geese, falcons, great blue herons, hummingbirds
and warblers; and threatened, endangered, or sensitive species
including the bald eagle, peregrine falcon, kit fox, and 12 species
of salmon and steelhead. Anadromous fish runs are of great cultural,
economic, recreational, and symbolic importance to the region.
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Ecosystem
Problems
Twentieth
century modifications have resulted in the Columbia River being
the most hydroelectrically developed river system in the world.
The river comprises over 400 dams, 11 run-of-the-river dams
on the mainstream, and hundreds of major and modest flow-altering
structures on its tributaries. Combined with overharvesting,
habitat destruction, changing river conditions, and pollution,
these hydroelectric modifications have significantly impacted
wild salmon populations.
Major
problems in the ecosystem include:
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More
than 90 percent decline in wild salmon populations;
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12
major salmon and steelhead runs listed as endangered and several
species extinct;
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55
percent loss of salmon and steelhead habitat;
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31
percent loss of stream miles preventing the annual migration
and spawning of salmon;
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Several
species of birds listed as threatened or endangered, including
the bald eagle, northern spotted owl, marbled murrelet, brown
pelican, and American peregrine falcon; and
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Declining
mammal populations, including the Columbia white-tailed deer
which is listed on the endangered species list.
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Ecosystem
Users
Residents
The Columbia River basin is home to more than 11 million residents,
including historically significant populations of Native Americans,
who have lived in the basin for thousands of years and have great
cultural, economic, recreational, and symbolic importance to the
Columbia River region.
Electricity
Electricity generation is an important industry for the Columbia
River basin -- it is the world's most hydroelectrically-developed
river system. More than 400 dams, including 11 run-of-the-river
dams on the mainstem, and hundreds of major and modest structures
on the tributaries tap the flow of water, generating over 21 million
kilowatts.
Fisheries
Andromous fish runs in the Columbia River are economically, culturally,
and recreationally important to the region and continue to support
fisheries in Oregon, Washington, California, and Alaska. Over
50 hatcheries operate today, with artificial production currently
accounting for approximately 75 percent of all fish returning
to the Columbia River system. Other fisheries of commercial and
recreational value are oysters, clams, mussels, sturgeon, and
Dungeness crabs.
Agriculture
As early as the 1870s, agriculture benefited from Columbia River
water. Today, Columbia basin farmers utilize approximately 1 percent
of the river system's annual flow to irrigate approximately 7.8
million acres of land. Major crops include wheat, alfalfa, potatoes,
mint, beets, beans, orchard fruit, and wine grapes.
Shipping
The Columbia and Snake Rivers carry 17 million tons of cargo annually
to and from the Pacific Ocean along a 465-mile waterway. Because
of the 40-foot-deep channel in the lower river and slackwater
lakes on the middle river, ocean freighters can navigate up the
Columbia and Willamette rivers to Portland and barges can transport
goods to the interior. Towboats push the barges up through navigation
locks, carrying diesel fuel and other commodities upriver, as
well as grain, wood chips, agricultural products, and lumber downriver.
Recreation
Recreation on the Columbia River began early in the settlement
era, with steamboat excursions to the western end of the Columbia
River Gorge. Sport fishing for salmon and steelhead developed
as early as the 1920s and has expanded with the increased use
of power boats. Today, sailing, day cruising, swimming, water
skiing, canoeing, picnicking, camping, hiking, rafting, boating,
sightseeing and other water sports are other popular recreation
activities, with hundreds of thousands of individuals taking extended
vacations, weekend and day trips to access these opportunities
every year.
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Ecosystem
Map
Map
of the Columbia River Basin (source: U.S Army Corp of Engineers)
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Below is
a timeline of major events and legislative actions that have
contributed to the large-scale alteration of the Columbia River
ecosystem:
Native
American Treaties, 1855
Six Native American tribes from the Columbia River basin signed
treaties with the United States federal government ceding most
of their ancestral lands for hunting and/or fishing rights.
The reservation land that the tribes were left with was located
far from the river.
Settlement,
1860s-1890s
Settlement rapidly increased in the Columbia River basin. With
it came industrial development in the form of commercial fisheries
(and the establishment of salmon hatcheries and canneries),
water transport, agriculture, mining, logging and grazing, and
railroads.
Declining
fisheries harvests, 1890s
The adverse effects of over-harvesting, mining, logging, and
farming practices were recognized as the leading causes of declining
fish harvests.
Engineering
projects, 1896
Engineering projects on the river began with navigation canals
at Cascade Locks in 1896.
Expanding
populations and agriculture, 1900-1950
Intensive farming and a population explosion, with its associated
industrial and human wastes, ended more salmon runs. Even more
habitat was eliminated due to logging and road building. Hatchery
propagation seemed to be the only answer to restoring fish runs
but poor hatchery design and hatchery harvest proved to be a
negative influence on many runs.
Reclamation
Act of 1902
The Reclamation Act of 1902 gave the federal government the
authority to provide irrigation to farmers in the West.
Eastern
Washington irrigation project, 1904
The Reclamation Service examined the possibility of developing
an irrigation project in eastern Washington but was discouraged
from pursuing the idea because of estimated high costs per irrigated
acre.
Engineering
projects, 1915
The Army Corps of Engineers undertook engineering projects on
the Columbia River with the creation of navigation canals at
The Dalles-Celilo in 1915.
Congressional
Act of 1923
A congressional act in 1923 authorized the Bureau of Reclamation
to once again undertake a study of the Columbia River basin.
The results of the study convinced the federal government to
delay irrigation projects in the basin because of technical
and financial impediments.
Rivers
and Harbors Act of 1925
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1925 authorized the Army Corps
of Engineers and the Federal Power Commission to conduct surveys
of navigable stream with potential power sites. These surveys
culminated in House Document No. 308, which was the first of
many "308 report). The document called for detailed studies
of many rivers, including the Columbia.
Army
Corps of Engineers study, 1928
The Army Corps of Engineers undertook a detailed investigation
of navigation, hydroelectric power, irrigation, and flood control
on the Columbia River, with specific resources charged with
investigating the portion of the Columbia upstream of its confluence
with the Snake River (Grand Coulee) for construction of a dam.
Bureau
of Reclamation interest in the Columbia River, 1931
The Army Corps of Engineers' study on the Columbia River - and
its major finding that a dam at Grand Coulee was warranted -
generated interest from the Bureau of Reclamation. The Bureau
surmised that power revenues could be used to offset part of
the relatively high costs needed for irrigation projects in
the basin.
Bureau
of Reclamation report to Congress, 1932
The Bureau of Reclamation submitted a report to Congress endorsing
the Army Corps' proposal for a large dam at Grand Coulee, along
with hydroelectric facilities. The report also emphasized that
power revenues from a dam at Grand Coulee would need to be used
to offset the cost of irrigation projects in the region.
Rock
Island Dam, 1932
Private power companies completed Rock Island Dam on the middle
river -- the first major hydropower producer on the Columbia.
Bonneville
Dam, 1933
The Public Works Board appropriated $63 million for construction
of Bonneville Dam on the lower river in 1933. The federal government
began work on the dam that same year, completing it in 1938.
Grand
Coulee Dam Project, 1933
The Secretary of the Interior, Harold Ickes, announced that
the Grand Coulee Dam project would be constructed, operated,
and maintained by the Bureau of Reclamation, and that revenue
from hydroelectric power would be used to repay the cost of
the project. Soon thereafter, the Bureau announced plans to
build a dam on the lower river with strength adequate to serve
as a foundation for the high-river Grand Coulee dam, and subsequently,
the Columbia basin irrigation project.
Rivers
and Harbors Act of 1935
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1935 authorized the Grand Coulee
Dam for purposes of flood control, navigation, stream flow regulation,
storage for and delivery of stored waters, and reclamation of
public lands and Indian reservations. The act charged that the
generation of electricity was to be used as a means of financially
aiding and assisting these undertakings.
Bonneville
Project, 1937
Congress created the Bonneville Project to market and distribute
the hydroelectric power output from Bonneville Dam, with preference
given to public customers. Initially created as a provisional
entity tied to Bonneville Dam, the organization soon lost its
temporary status and took on a new name -- the Bonneville Power
Administration. The re-named organization was given authority
extending to the Great Coulee Dam and other federal dams on
the Columbia River.
Anti-Speculation
Act of 1937
To inhibit the selling of land in close proximity to the Grand
Coulee Dam at elevated prices, Congress passed the Anti-Speculation
Act limiting farms in the Columbia Basin Project to 40 acres
for an individual and 80 acres for a husband and wife. Holders
of land exceeding these limits were able to sell their land
only after the government had appraised the land. This appraisal
was based on the land's value before irrigation water from the
Dam had been delivered.
Reclamation
Act of 1939
The Reclamation Act of 1939 provided irrigators on new projects
in the Columbia River basin with a ten-year grace period before
having to start with a forty-year repayment schedule with a
zero percent interest rate.
The Columbia
Basin Project Act of 1940
The Columbia Basin Project Act of 1940 authorized the Secretary
of the Interior to contract with the State of Washington for
maintenance and operation of fish hatcheries built as part of
the fish protection program required on the Columbia Basin Project.
Grand
Coulee Dam, 1941
The federal government completed work on the Grand Coulee Dam
on the upper river.
World
War II, 1941-1945
Hydroelectric resources contributed directly to waging World
War II. Electricity from the Columbia River powered aluminum
plants, shipyards, and the development of the plutonium atomic
bomb at Hanford Engineering Works near Richland, Washington.
The hydroelectricity generated on the Columbia also stimulated
significant industrial growth in the Pacific Northwest following
the end of the war.
Columbia
Basin Project Act of 1943
The Columbia Basin Project Act of 1943 replaced the Anti-Speculation
Act of 1937 and stipulated that the government could not deliver
water until contracts were signed by the Bureau of Reclamation
and irrigation districts. Specifically, the Act allowed farm
units to range in size from ten to 160 acres and allowed owners
of land prior to 1937 to retain up to 160 acres.
Columbia
Basin Project completion, 1948
Completion of the Columbia Basin Project turned the high desert
area of central Washington into a bread basket. The centerpiece
of the Project was the Grand Coulee Dam, which was built primarily
as an irrigation project by the Bureau of Reclamation. Water
stored behind Grand Coulee Dam in Lake Roosevelt was pumped
into Banks Lake. This lake was formed by damming both ends of
Grand Coulee. The water then flowed through a system of tunnels
and canals to irrigate croplands. The project irrigated over
500,000 acres and had the potential to be expanded to irrigate
over 1.1 million acres. The Grand Coulee Dam was also used as
a hydroelectric project and had the capacity to generate more
electricity than any other hydroelectric project in North America.
Region-wide
power shortage, 1950s
In the period following World War II, the Pacific Northwest
experienced region-wide power shortages leading to discussions
of how best to increase the generating capacity of the Grand
Coulee Dam. The key to increased power was deemed to come from
expanding the storage of water upstream of the dam. Because
most of the Columbia River upstream of Grand Coulee is in Canada,
the task of exploring the possibilities for upstream storage
was given to the International Joint Commission.
Columbia
River Treaty and Protocol, 1961
Following years of negotiation and study, the Columbia River
Treaty and Protocol was signed by the President of the U.S.
and the Prime Minister of Canada in 1961. The treaty defined
the relationship between the U.S. and Canada concerning the
operation of Columbia River dams and reservoirs, and deals with
the co-operative development of the Columbia River. The Treaty
became effective in September of 1964, and included provision
for Canada to complete several dams on the upper section of
the river to provide for additional storage, and to compensate
Canada for paying all costs of building these dams by providing
Canada with half the additional power and flood control benefits
produced downstream; among other provisions.
Pacific
Northwest Co-ordination Agreement, 1964
Co-operation in Columbia River operations envisioned by the
Columbia River Treaty was reflected in a 1964 accord titled
the Pacific Northwest Co-ordination Agreement. The Agreement
governed power operations on the Columbia River. Parties to
the Agreement included the Army Corps of Engineers, the Bonneville
Power Administration, and the region's utilities.
Dam building,
1960s-1970s
The last dams built on the Columbia came on line during the
1960s and 1970s. In 1973, Canada completed the Mica Dam on the
upper river. By 1975, eleven dams stood on the mainstem, with
many additional dams on major tributaries. The dams created
large reservoirs that provided flood control and water for vast
irrigation systems on the Columbia Plateau. With the completion
of four dams on the lower Snake River during the 1970s, engineers
strung together a series of slackwater lakes that allowed barges
to navigate more than 465 miles from the Pacific to the inland
port of Lewiston, Idaho. The hydroelectric projects connected
the entire region through a network of interties and relay stations
into a powergrid system. The dams contributed significantly
to steep declines in historically strong anadromous fish runs
by impeding juvenile and adult migrations to and from the ocean
by their physical presence and by creating reservoirs. The reservoirs
behind the dams slowed water velocities, altered river temperatures,
and increased predation potential. Reduced water velocity increased
the time it took juveniles to migrate downstream, higher water
temperatures may have had adverse effects on juvenile and adult
behavior, and predators found prey more easily in slower-moving
water.
Northwest
Power Act of 1980
Congress enacted the Northwest Power Act of 1980 requiring that
planning for the energy future of the Pacific Northwest involve
public participation in a process that considered the full environmental
and economic cost of energy alternatives. The Act also required
establishment of a fish and wildlife program based on recommendations
of the region's fish and wildlife agencies, Indian tribes and
others.
Declining
salmon runs, 1970s-1990s
In the decades following completion of the Columbia River Project,
salmon runs in the Columbia basin continued to decline. By 1995,
populations were estimated at 500,000 of all species including
wild and hatchery -- approximately 2 - 5 percent of the original
run size.
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History
of Restoration Actions (1938-1978)
Below
is a timeline of restoration-related events and activities prior
to the establishment of large-scale restoration programs in
the Columbia River:
Fish
ladders, 1938-1970s
Adult fish ladders at all eight lower Columbia and Snake dams
were integrated into the design of the dams, beginning with
Bonneville in 1938. The ladders consisted of a series of steps
and pools which provided a gradual upward climb over the dams
for returning adults. To steer the adults to the ladders,
"attraction" flows at the downstream ladder entrances
simulated conditions that would be found at the base of natural
waterfalls. The concept proved effective for adult fish passage.
Mitchell
Act of 1938
The Mitchell Act authorized the Secretary of Commerce to carry
out activities for the conservation of fishery resources in
the Columbia River Basin, including establishing salmon-cultural
stations in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and providing for
a five-year construction and maintenance program for the U.S.
Bureau of Fisheries. The Act also authorized investigations,
surveys, and experiments for the conservation of fishery resources;
construction and installation of devices to improve feeding,
spawning, and migration; and other activities needed for fish
conservation. The Act also authorized the Secretary to use
the states' services and facilities under written agreements
and to construct improvements on state-owned lands or rights
of way.
Northwest
Atlantic Fisheries Act of 1950
Passage of the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Act of 1950 implemented
the international Convention for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries.
Water
Resources Planning Act of 1965
The Water Resources Planning Act of 1965 established a Water
Resources Council to be composed of Cabinet representatives,
including the Secretary of the Interior. The Council was charged
with maintaining a continuing assessment of the adequacy of
water supplies in each region of the U.S. The Council also
was mandated to establish principles and standards for federal
participants in the preparation of river basin plans and in
evaluating federal water projects with respect to agricultural,
urban, energy, industrial, recreational, and fish and wildlife
needs.
National
Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966
The National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of
1966 established the National Wildlife Refuge System and directed
the Secretary of the Interior in the overall management of
the refuge system in order to maintain the biological integrity,
diversity, and environmental health of the system, and to
prepare a comprehensive conservation plan for each refuge.
Yakama
Tribe v. state of Oregon, 1968
Fourteen Yakama tribal members filed suit to prevent the state
of Oregon from interfering with their off-reservation treaty
fishing rights. The court found that the state's authority
to regulate Indian fishing for conservation purposes was limited
as treaties provide tribes an absolute right to a fair share
of the fish produced by the Columbia River system.
National
Environmental Protection Act of 1969
The National Environmental Protection Act of 1969 required
the federal agencies to examine the impacts of proposed major
federal actions significantly affecting the environment.
Clean
Water Act of 1972
The Clean Water Act of 1972 authorized the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency to establish effluent limitations and required
permits for the discharge of pollutants from a point source
to navigable waters. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
was charged with approving state and tribal limits for the
maximum amount of a pollutant that a water body can receive
and still meet water quality standards for specified purposes,
including fish and wildlife.
Endangered
Species Act of 1973
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 implemented the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora, signed by the U.S. in March of 1973, and the Convention
on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western
Hemisphere, signed by the U.S. in October of 1940. The Act
provided for the conservation of ecosystems upon which threatened
and endangered species of fish, wildlife, and plants depend,
both through federal action and by encouraging the establishment
of state programs. The Act also authorized the determination
and listing of species as endangered and threatened; prohibited
unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and transport of endangered
species; provided authority to acquire land for the conservation
of listed species, using land and water conservation funds;
and required the establishment of cooperative agreements and
grants-in-aid to states that establish and maintain active
and adequate programs for endangered and threatened wildlife
and plants. The Act also required federal agencies to insure
that any action authorized, funded, or carried out by them
was not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of listed
species or modify their critical habitat.
United
States v. Washington, 1974
A federal district court in the state of Washington found
that Native American Tribes were entitled to the opportunity
to take up to 50 percent of the harvestable number of fish
that can be taken.
National
Forest Management Act of 1976
The National Forest Management Act reorganized, expanded,
and otherwise amended the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act of 1974, which called for the management of renewable
resources on national forest lands. The National Forest Management
Act required the Secretary of Agriculture to assess forest
lands, to develop a management program based on multiple-use,
sustained-yield principles, and to implement a resource management
plan for each unit of the National Forest System. It was the
primary statute governing the administration of national forests.
The Act mandated multiple uses for lands managed by the Forest
Service to include outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed,
wildlife and fish, and wilderness purposes.
Federal
Land Policy and Management Act of 1976
The Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 directed
the Secretary of the Interior to develop and maintain land
use plans using a systematic interdisciplinary approach in
order to achieve the integrated consideration of physical,
biological, and economic factors.
Endangered
Species Act amendments of 1978
Amendments to the Endangered Species Act in 1978 created a
Cabinet-level Endangered Species Committee as part of a two-tiered
process whereby federal agencies may obtain exemptions from
certain requirements of the Act. The Act also formalized the
consultation process of the underlying law with the requirement
that federal agencies prepare biological assessments in cases
where the Secretary of the Interior has advised that a listed
species may be present. The 1978 amendments also obliged the
Secretary to consider the economic impact of designating critical
habitat, and to review the list of endangered and threatened
species every five years. Other changes made by the 1978 statute
included a provision for cooperative agreements with states
for the conservation of endangered and threatened species
of plants.
Amendments
to the Water Resources Planning Act, 1978
1978 amendments to the Water Resources Planning Act authorized
appropriations though fiscal 1979 and stipulated the apportionment
of federal planning monies for certain specific tasks, including
the Columbia River Estuary Special Study.
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Recent
Restoration Activities (1980-present)
Below
is a timeline of activities establishing and implementing restoration
programs in the Columbia River since 1980:
Salmon
and Steelhead Conservation and Enhancement Act of 1980
The Salmon and Steelhead Conservation and Enhancement Act of
1980 established a salmon and steelhead enhancement program
to be jointly administered by the Departments of Commerce and
Interior, with appropriations authorized at $126 million. The
Act also established a Washington state and Columbia River conservation
area and directed the Secretary of Commerce to establish an
advisory committee of representatives from Washington and Oregon,
the Washington and Columbia River tribal bodies, the Pacific
Fisheries Management Council, and the National Marine Fisheries
Service. It also required that a report be submitted to the
Secretary of Commerce and Congress, and for the Department of
Interior to establish a grant program for each conservation
area.
Pacific
Northwest Electric Power Planning and Conservation Act of 1980
The Pacific Northwest Electric Power Planning and Conservation
Act of 1980 (Northwest Power Act) created a requirement for
a state-directed Columbia basin fish and wildlife program to
protect and restore salmon and other fish and wildlife in the
basin because of declining salmon populations and loss of fish
habitat believed to be resulting from hydropower developments.
The Act also authorized the establishment and operation of the
Pacific Northwest Electric Power and Conservation Planning Council,
providing that two persons from the states of Idaho, Montana,
Oregon, and Washington be appointed to the Council. Among other
things, the Council was responsible for preparing a regional
conservation and electric power plan as well as a fish and wildlife
protection, mitigation, and enhancement program to deal with
the operation of hydroelectric facilities on the Columbia River
and its tributaries. The statute defined the priorities to be
addressed and the procedures to be followed for both the electric
power plan and the fish and wildlife program.
Endangered
Species Act listing, 1980s
The listing of several salmon species under the Endangered Species
Act produced a great public awakening and resulted in a major
shift from hatchery production to conservation of wild stocks.
Limits
to address overfishing, 1980s
The federal government established harvest limits to address
salmon over-fishing. At the same time, state, local, and tribal
efforts addressed habitat restoration through watershed plans.
Northwest
Power Act amendments of 1984
Amendments to the Northwest Power Act authorized the Secretary
of Interior to design, construct, operate, and maintain fish
passage facilities within the Yakima River Basin.
Pacific
Salmon Treaty, 1985
The U.S. and Canada signed the Pacific Salmon Treaty. The treaty
governed the harvest of certain stocks in the fisheries of the
Northwest states (including Alaska) and Canada.
Pacific
Salmon Treaty Act of 1985
The Pacific Salmon Treaty Act of 1985 implemented the Pacific
Salmon Treaty between the U.S. and Canada signed in January
of 1985. The Act established the requirements for Commissioners
and the subsidiary Northern, Southern, and Fraser River Panels;
and authorized federal regulatory preemption by the Secretary
of Commerce to meet treaty obligations. The Act also authorized
creation of an advisory committee to assist the U.S. Section
and U.S. Panel Sections, and authorized appropriations of such
sums as may be necessary for carrying out the purposes and provisions
of the Treaty and Act.
Electric
Consumers Protection Act of 1986
The Electric Consumers Protection Act of 1986 mandated several
fish and wildlife provisions. Among other provisions, the Act
required each license to include conditions to protect, mitigate,
and enhance fish and wildlife affected by the project. These
conditions were to be based on recommendations received pursuant
to the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act from the Fish and
Wildlife Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service, and
state fish and wildlife agencies. The Act also mandated the
construction, maintenance, and operation of fish passage facilities.
Columbia
River Gorge National Scenic Area Act of 1986
Protectionists, including many hikers and outdoor enthusiasts,
organized a campaign to preserve the Columbia River Gorge's
scenic beauty by successfully encouraging Congress to pass the
Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area Act in 1986. The legislation
mandated environmental protection through agreements between
federal, state, municipal, and county governments in the Columbia
River Gorge.
Chehalis
River Fishery Resources Study Act of 1990
Chehalis River Fishery Resources Study Act required the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service to undertake a study of the fishery
resources and habitats and develop goals and short- and long-term
recommendations. The study and recommendations were to be reported
to Congress by October 1, 1992. Participation by the Chehalis
Tribe and Quinault Indian Nation was provided, and participation
by the State of Washington was authorized, on the condition
that non-federal and non-tribal participants pay, in the aggregate,
1/6 of the cost of the study.
National
Indian Forest Resources Management Act of 1990
The National Indian Forest Resources Management Act of 1990
required the Secretary of the Interior to undertake management
activities on Indian forest lands, in furtherance of the U.S.
trust responsibility for these lands. These activities had to
incorporate the principles of sustained yield and multiple use,
and include tribal participation.
Endangered
Species Act listings, 1991-1992
Four Snake River salmon species were listed under the Endangered
Species Act in 1991 and 1992.
Northwest
Power Act amendments of 1992
Amendments to the Northwest Power Act required the Secretaries
of the Army Corps of Engineers and the Department of Interior
to develop plans for operating federal projects in the Pacific
Northwest.
Northwest
Power Act amendments of 1996
Amendments to the Northwest Power Act required the North West
Power Planning Council to appoint an independent scientific
review panel to review projects funded through the Bonneville
Power Administration's annual fish and wildlife budget that
implements the Council's fish and wildlife program. The amendments
also required the Council to establish Scientific Peer Review
Groups to advise the Council about funding decisions for fish
and wildlife projects. The amendments also set appropriations
at $2 million per year through fiscal 2000.
Snake
River Sockeye, 1992
The federal government listed the native Snake River Sockeye
salmon as endangered under the Endangered Species Act.
Elwha
River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act of 1992
The Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act of 1992
provided for efforts to restore the fisheries and ecosystem
of the Elwha River basin in Washington State, including effective
60 days after submission of a report to Congress, the Secretary
of the Interior was authorized to acquire the Elwha and Glines
Canyon hydroelectric power projects for $29.5 million. Authorization
for acquisition of the projects was conditioned upon determinations
by the Secretary that removal of the dams was necessary for
full restoration of the Elwha River ecosystem and fisheries,
and that funding for that purpose would be available within
two years after acquisition.
Interior
Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Plan, 1993
President Clinton directed the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem
Management Plan to "develop a scientifically sound and
ecosystem-based strategy for management of eastside forests"
within the Columbia River Basin. The spread of weeds, wild fires,
disease spores, stream silt, and air pollution, as well as the
loss of migratory bird habitat, all cross land-ownership boundaries.
To ensure these issues were adequately addressed, federal agencies
began working together to develop a scientifically sound ecosystem-based
strategy for managing 28 million hectares of public lands in
the Interior Columbia River Basin. This far-reaching effort,
the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project, sought
to restore and maintain healthy ecosystems and support the economic,
social, and cultural needs of people and communities.
National
Marine Fisheries Service's Columbia River hydropower biological
opinion, 1993
The National Marine Fisheries Service released its biological
opinion requiring changes in hydropower operations to aid salmon
and steelhead runs to the Snake River protected under the Endangered
Species Act.
Federal
court rejects Biological Opinion, 1994
A federal court rejected the 1993 Columbia River hydropower
biological opinion, saying the "system was crying out for
a major overhaul." These were the strongest words yet heard
from the courts about the urgency of restoring salmon and steelhead
runs to the Snake River and served as a wake-up call for federal
agencies, states, and other followers of Columbia Basin recovery
efforts.
Columbia
River Estuary, 1995
At the request of the Governors of Washington and Oregon, the
Columbia River was included in the Environmental Protection
Agency's National Estuary Program under the Clean Water Act.
National
Marine Fisheries Service's Biological Opinion, 1995
The National Marine Fisheries Service issued a new biological
opinion establishing stronger protections, including increased
flows and measures to improve water quality and temperature.
It set a goal of adopting a revised biological opinion by the
end of 1999. It also committed the Army Corps of Engineers to
prepare an environmental impact statement on breaching the Snake
River dams. The plan allowed "incidental take" (killing)
of up to 86 percent of spring and summer chinook salmon, and
up to 99 percent of fall chinook salmon.
Endangered
Species Act listings, 1995-1999
Nine additional species of fish throughout Columbia Basin were
listed under the Endangered Species Act.
Integrated
Scientific Assessment for Ecosystem Management in the Interior
Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins,
1996
The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project conducted
an unprecedented study of the entire area. The resulting "Integrated
Scientific Assessment for Ecosystem Management in the Interior
Columbia Basin and Portions of the Klamath and Great Basins"
was published in September 1996. This comprehensive scientific
analysis involving scientists and technicians from federal and
state agencies, universities, and private contractors, examined
changing conditions in the basin over the last 100 years. The
study confirmed that the Columbia River basin had undergone
dramatic ecological changes as the region had been settled and
developed.
Secretarial
Order 3206, 1997
Jointly issued by the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary
of Commerce, Secretarial Order 3206 clarified the responsibilities
of the departments, their agencies, offices, and bureaus when
actions taken under the authority of the Endangered Species
Act affect or may affect Indian lands, tribal trust resources,
or the exercise of tribal rights. The order also acknowledged
the trust responsibility and treaty obligations of the U.S.
toward Indian tribes and tribal members and its government to
government relationship in dealing with the tribes.
Northwest
Environmental Defense Center v. Bonneville Power Administration,
1997
This court decision interpreted Bonneville Power Administration's
responsibility to provide "equitable treatment" for
fish and wildlife in conducting its power marketing activities
under the Northwest Power Act.
Willamette
steelhead, 1998
The federal government listed the Willamette steelhead as endangered
under the Endangered Species Act.
Federal
Caucus established, 1999
Under the Endangered Species Act, a consortium of Federal agencies,
known as the Federal Caucus, was authorized to develop recovery
plans for listed species and enforce no-take and habitat modification
provisions. The Caucus comprised representatives of the nine
federal agencies that have natural resource responsibilities
under the Endangered Species Act, including the National Marine
Fisheries Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bonneville
Power Administration, Army Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Reclamation,
Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Forest Service, Bureau
of Land Management, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
Federal
Caucus collaboration on Columbia Basin recovery, 1999
The Federal Caucus announced its intent to collaborate on recovery
strategies across the Columbia Basin and across hydropower,
habitat, hatchery, and harvest impacts.
Biological
Opinion amendments, 1999
The National Marine Fisheries Service's 1995 biological opinion
was amended to incorporate additional protections resulting
from the listing of several other Columbia and Snake River being
declared threatened or endangered - resulting in a total of
12 listed populations.
Conceptual
Recovery Plan, 1999
The nine agencies that made up the Federal Caucus released a
draft Conceptual Recovery Plan outlining the difficult choices
the Columbia River region faced in recovering species list as
endangered under the Endangered Species Act.
Fisheries
Restoration and Irrigation Mitigation Act of 2000
The Fisheries Restoration and Irrigation Mitigation Act of 2000
directed the Secretary of the Interior to establish a program
to implement projects, such as installation of fish screens
and fish passage devices in order to mitigate impacts on fisheries
associated with irrigation systems in Idaho, Montana, Oregon,
and Washington.
Federal
Caucus public hearings, 2000
The Federal Caucus held a series of public meetings to give
interested parties the opportunity to learn more about the various
options under consideration for salmon passage at four lower
Snake River dams in the Lower Snake River Juvenile Salmon Migration
Draft Feasibility Study and Draft Environmental Impact Statement.
More than 9,000 Northwest citizens attended the meetings, with
60,000 written comments submitted on the Conceptual Recovery
Plan and the Army Corps' Draft Feasibility Study and Environmental
Impact Statement. The Federal Caucus also consulted with the
region's Indian tribes, which have a special interest in the
natural and cultural resources of the basin, especially its
fish and wildlife. The message was clear. The people and governments
of the region would make sacrifices to save the fish, but they
wanted the burden to be shared and they wanted actions that
will work.
Draft
Basin-Wide Salmon Recovery Strategy, 2000
The Federal Caucus released its Draft Basin-wide Salmon Recovery
Strategy to states and tribes for a 60-day technical review.
Final
Basin-Wide Salmon Recovery Strategy, 2000
After considering public comments received during the formal
comment period, as well as additional technical comments from
states and tribes, the Federal Caucus released its final Strategy
(entitled "Final Basin-Wide Salmon Recovery Strategy").
Draft
Endangered Species Act Implementation Plan, 2001
Action agencies released Draft Endangered Species Act Implementation
Plan (2002-2006) for the federal Columbia River Power System
Biological Opinions.
National
Wildlife Federation v. National Marine Fisheries Service, 2003
A 2003 court decision remanded the National Marine Fisheries
Service's 2000 biological opinion for endangered species-listed
salmon and steelhead in the Columbia and Snake Rivers to the
Service in order to resolve deficiencies identified by the court.
Indian
tribes sue over funding for fish and wildlife activities, 2003
Several tribes in the Columbia River basin challenged the legality
of actions by Bonneville and the Northwest Power and Conservation
Council regarding the funding of fish and wildlife activities
in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.
Biological
Opinion under court-ordered revision, 2004
A court-ordered revision of the Biological Opinion was released
after being challenged by environmentalists over certain action
plans that the government could not ensure would take place.
Indian
tribes threaten to sue over changes to fish passage, 2004
American Indian tribes, led by the Confederated Tribes of the
Umatilla Indian Reservation, threatened to sue the Bush administration
under either the Endangered Species Act or tribal treaty laws
if it implemented a proposed cutback in hydro-dam spill that
help Pacific Northwest salmon pass through dams on the Columbia
and Snake rivers as part of their annual migrations. The Bonneville
Power Administration proposed curtailing spill in the summer
in order to generate an estimated $40 million in additional
revenue and provide cost savings for ratepayers. But Indian
tribes said the proposal would result in the killing of tens
of thousands of salmon that they depend upon for food and other
uses. A reduction in spill also would harm salmon species protected
by the Endangered Species Act.
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Restoration
Plan
There
is no single, unified, coherent restoration strategy for the Columbia
River basin. Instead, federal responsibilities for protecting,
mitigating, and enhancing fish and wildlife resources in the basin,
as well as involving the tribes, are defined by a multi-layered
collection of laws, treaties, executive orders, and court decisions.
The
four independent and primary programs accelerating restoration
in the Columbia River Basin are:
1.
Northwest Power Act
Under
the Northwest Power Act, the Northwest Power and Conservation
Council has a duty to prepare and adopt the Columbia River Basin
Fish and Wildlife Program to protect, mitigate, and enhance fish
and wildlife, including related spawning groups and habitat, on
the Columbia River and its tributaries for impacts of all federal
and nonfederal hydroelectric projects in the basin. In preparing
the Fish and Wildlife Program, the Council periodically solicits
recommendations from federal and state fish and wildlife agencies,
Indian tribes, and others concerning the needs of fish and wildlife
in the basin. The Council then develops a draft Amendment to the
Fish and Wildlife Program that incorporates the recommendations
received, and releases the draft for public comment. After reviewing
comments received on the draft, and balancing the needs of fish
and wildlife with the region's hydropower needs, the Council issues
the Fish and Wildlife Program, which provides guidance and recommendations
on mitigating the impacts of hydropower on the region's fish and
wildlife.
The
Northwest Power Act also directs the Bonneville Power Administration
to fund the protection, mitigation, and enhancement of fish and
wildlife in the basin. To meet this requirement, Bonneville takes
actions and enters into agreements with other entities to meet
the goals and objectives outlined by the Northwest Power and Conservation
Council. Bonneville receives assistance in this process from the
Columbia Basin Fish and Wildlife Authority, composed of federal,
state, and tribal fish and wildlife officials, which provides
recommendations regarding fish and wildlife projects proposed
by contractors. The Council's Independent Scientific Review Panel
reviews proposed projects to ensure that they are consistent with
the goals of the Fish and Wildlife Program. Other agencies also
collaborate with Bonneville in implementing the Fish and Wildlife
Program, affording Bonneville access to additional knowledge and
technical capabilities, as well as access to resources needed
for mitigation activities.
2.
Endangered Species Act
Under
the Endangered Species Act, federal agencies must use their authorities
to conserve endangered and threatened species and make sure that
their actions do not jeopardize the continued existence of listed
species. In the federal Columbia River Power System, agencies
collaborate on several concurrent and sometimes overlapping plans
towards this end, including biological opinions, the proposed
recovery plans for salmon, and the basin-wide Salmon Recovery
Strategy. While different in their specific focus and scope, all
of these plans promote the continued existence of threatened and
endangered species in the basin.
As
the regulating agencies for endangered and threatened species,
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries
Service are the lead agencies on most fish and wildlife plans
driven by the Endangered Species Act. Section 7 of the Endangered
Species Act requires agencies to consult with U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service and National Marine Fisheries Service to ensure that actions
are not likely to jeopardize listed species. Based on these consultations,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National Marine Fisheries Service
are required to produce biological opinions that prescribe reasonable
and prudent measures/alternatives for proposed federal actions
that may adversely affect listed species. The Bonneville Power
Administration, the Army Corps of Engineers, and the Bureau of
Reclamation consult with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National
Marine Fisheries Service on the impacts that operation of the
federal Columbia River Power System has on endangered and threatened
species. In response to these consultations, the National Marine
Fisheries Service develops biological opinions for anadromous
species impacted by the power system, while U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service develops biological opinions for resident fish and wildlife
impacted by the system.
The
National Marine Fisheries Service first issued a Biological Opinion
for the federal Columbia River Power System for salmon and steelhead
in 1992, and has developed subsequent versions, such as a 1998
supplement that added steelhead. The most recent Biological Opinion
for the federal Columbia River Power System for salmon and steelhead
was issued in 2000. In 2003, however, a federal court remanded
the 2000 Biological Opinion after ruling it deficient, due to
reliance on federal mitigation actions that had not undergone
section 7 consultations, as well as reliance on off-site nonfederal
mitigation activities that were not reasonably certain to occur.
A new salmon and steelhead Biological Opinion was released in
2004.
Responsibility
for implementing the Biological Opinions lies with the operators
and managers of the federal Columbia River Power System - Bonneville
Power Administration, the Army Corps of Engineers, and Bureau
of Reclamation - known as the Action Agencies. In fulfilling this
responsibility, the Action Agencies create Biological Opinion
Implementation Plans, which provide guidance on how the Biological
Opinions should be implemented. The Action Agencies create One-Year
Implementation Plans, which outline annual goals for meeting reasonable
and prudent measures/alternatives, as well as Five-Year Implementation
Plans, which address longer-term goals for meeting the measures.
The development of Implementation Plans typically involves significant
input from other agencies. For example, Bonneville and the Northwest
Power and Conservation Council work together to support Endangered
Species Act objectives by integrating the implementation of the
Biological Opinions with sub-basin planning and the Fish and Wildlife
program's administrative process. In addition, implementation
of the Biological Opinions has evolved as the Action Agencies
continue to incorporate new information from Endangered Species
Act recovery planning processes.
3.
Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project
Under
the direction of President Clinton in 1993, the U.S. Forest Service
and the Bureau of Land Management are authorized to develop and
maintain the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project
with the overall goal of producing a science-based management
strategy that addresses the issues affecting federal lands in
the basin including forest health, rangeland health, and protection
of bull trout.
4.
Lower Columbia River Estuary Partnership
In
1995, the Lower Columbia River was included in the National Estuary
Program under the Clean Water Act. The Partnership is directed
by a strategic plan called the Comprehensive Conservation and
Management Plan. The Plan guides all program activities and annual
work tasks for the Partnership. Developing and implementing a
Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan is the primary
task of a National Estuary Program. The Management Plan embodies
the efforts of many committed citizens who represent environmental
groups, local governments, state and federal agencies, ports,
tribal governments, industry, labor, agriculture, recreational
users, commercial fishing, the regional Northwest Power Planning
Council, and citizens-at-large. In keeping with the Estuary Program's
emphasis on a collaborative local decision-making process, extensive
public outreach and involvement opportunities have been used in
developing the Management Plan. The resulting Lower Columbia River
Estuary Partnership focuses on on-the-ground improvements for
habitat and land use; reduction of toxic and conventional pollutants;
heightened education and information; and government coordination.
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Federal
Pacific Northwest Electric Power and Conservation Planning
Council
Bonneville Power Administration
Columbia Basin Fish and Wildlife Authority
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Marine Fisheries Service
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Bureau of Reclamation
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Bureau of Indian Affairs
Bureau of Land Management
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
Natural Resources Conservation Service
U.S. Geological Survey
State
Oregon
Washington
Idaho
Montana
Nevada
Wyoming
Utah
International
Canada
Other
Tribal governments
Local governments
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The
Bonneville Power Administration directs over $150 million
annually to the Northwest Power and Conservation Council's
Fish and Wildlife Program for salmon restoration efforts and
has spent approximately $1.02 billion over the last 20 years
on federal salmon restoration efforts through this Program.
No annual congressional appropriation is required for this
program.
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Additional
funds are spent by the Army Corps of Engineers, the Bureau
of Reclamation, and NMFS. These funds are annual appropriations
and not stable, resulting in uneven implementation.
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Roughly
$125 million per year for the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem
Management Project is appropriated from Congress.
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The
Lower Columbia River Estuary Partnership receives $300,000
per year under the Clean Water Act.
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Under
the WRDA 2000, the Columbia River Estuary received an additional
$30 million for multi-year restoration projects.
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The
Pacific Coastal Salmon Recovery Fund provides grants to states
and tribes for the purpose of assisting state, local and tribal
salmon recovery efforts. In fiscal 2000, $58 million was appropriated
to the program, including $18 million for Washington, $9 million
for Oregon, $6 million for Pacific coastal tribes, and $2
million for Columbia River tribes. States are mandated to
a 25 percent non-federal match, with administrative costs
limited to 3 percent.
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Achieving
Progress
There
is no specific, uniform set of restoration goals and objectives
for the Columbia River. Instead, there exist multiple restoration
initiatives. The numerous court actions and appeals resulting
from conflicts between the Pacific Northwest Electric Power
and Conservation Planning Council, various federal agencies,
and others have also significantly delayed the restoration processes
and resulted in unclear timelines and plan-implementation problems.
However, the restoration focus to date has been salmon and steelhead
stock recovery, habitat restoration, and fisheries management.
Other goals and objectives have included forest health; rangeland
health; protection of bull trout; on-the-ground improvements
for habitat and land use; reduction of toxic and conventional
pollutants; and increased education, information, and coordination.
Other unresolved
issues within the Columbia River basin include:
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No
stable source of funding;
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No
specific, uniform set of restoration goals and objectives;
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Fragmentation
of responsibility; and
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No
clear direction for interagency obligations.
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